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Index
abatement, first-best level of 62
Accelerated Reduction and Elimination of Toxics (ARET) Challenge 56, 155, 158–159, 160, 168, 169, 172, 175–176
accidents and spills, and perception of an industry 103–104
accountability 32, 122
activism 127–128, 132, 133
actors, asymmetric power relationship among 86–89
adaptation to global climate change 92–93
adverse selection, in self-regulation programs 107–109, 112
advertising, brand name 104
advocacy NGOs 131
strategies and tactics of 132
agenda-setting 133–134
agriculture
“green,” 232
organic 204–206
sustainable 206
Ahold company 207
air pollution 158
Alcoa 56
alliance capitalism 126
Alternative Trade Organizations 202
Amazon basin, protection of 133
American Chemistry Council 160
American Forest and Paper Association 195
American Political Science Association 70
Angola 199
Antarctica 23
anti-corporate activism 127–128, 132
apparel industry 214
Aristotle 36
Arnold, Matt 98
associative networks 89
authority
decentralization of 75–76
and good governance 32
governmental vs. private 122
of NSMDs 187–189
battery industry 103
Becker, Gary 44, 46
Belgium 200, 204
best management practices (BMPs) 195
“beyond compliance” principles 161, 234
Bhopal disaster 59, 104, 111, 160
biodiversity 192
birds 206
Bob, Clifford 134
“boiling in oil” contracts 47
boomerang model of activism 133
boycotts
failure of 192
NGO-initiated 59, 102, 189
boycott shield 193
B&Q company 194
Brazil 197, 199, 200, 202
Britain 126, 204, 205
British Petroleum (BP) 26, 29, 128
Brundtland Report 81
Buchanan, James 54
Bunting, Bruce 210
business.
See companies, corporations
Café Audubon 206
Cafédirect 203
CAFOD 204
California 50, 205
California Fuel Cell Partnership 91
Canada 63, 155, 156, 159–160, 195
Canadian Council of Forest Ministers 195–196
Canadian Environmental Protection Act (CEPA) 159
Canadian Standards Association (CSA) 195
Canadian Sustainable Forestry Certification Coalition 195
carbon emissions 17, 24, 123, 166
carbon taxes 91
carbon tetrachloride 158
carbon trading 50, 92, 138
Caribbean countries 206
carrot-and-stick approach 47–48
Carson, Rachel, Silent Spring 103, 205
cartels and clubs 107, 111
case studies, use of, in economics 47
Center for Science and the Environment 51
Central America Coffee Company 207
CERES principles 8, 103
certification programs 51–52, 65, 183, 187, 190–192, 202–208, 210–213
environmental type 204–207
future of 213–215
NSMD type 183, 190–192, 202–208, 214–215
possible scenarios for 190–192
socially responsible type 202–204
chemical industry 100, 107, 160–161
voluntary programs in 56, 59, 104
Chemical Manufacturers Association 160
Chicago Climate Exchange 8
Chile 197
China 35, 64
chlorofluorocarbons 64, 99
Christian Aid 204
civil society
global 27, 81
governance by agents of (e.g., NGOs) 7, 26–28, 141
networks, increasing prominence of 27
unequal power of, compared to state and corporations 86–87
Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990 50, 59, 158, 166
Climate Challenge Program 103, 155, 157, 160, 170, 176, 225
climate change.
See global climate change
climate change programs 159–160, 169
Climate Leaders 48, 60
climate system, research on 35
Climate Wise program 155, 158, 160, 176
Coase, Ronald 43
codes of conduct
effectiveness of, in mitigating environmental damage 109
voluntary 8
coercion
in environmental governance 47–49
transaction costs of 48
coffee 198–208
environmental problems from 198
fair trade 207–208
importing countries 200
organic 205–207, 208
price volatility and 198–199, 200–202
producing countries 199–208
Coffee America 207
Collection, Fishing, and Holding standard (CFH) 211
collective action, problems of 15–18
Colombia 199, 201
colonial period 88
co-management 79
command-and-control regulations 50
common-pool resources 63, 100, 102
communities, in hybrid environmental governance 77–80
companies
boundaries of, in a global economy 126
compared to NGOs 135–137
compliance with environmental regulations 52–53, 77
correlation of financial and social performance 67
desire for stable regulatory rules 7, 25
in domestic politics 128
dysfunction in 136
environmental goals of, self-chosen 162–163
environmental harm caused by 137
environmental standards set by 137
governance of, shareholder vs. stakeholder interests in 126
governance role of 24–26
“green,” 98–99, 181, 230
information from 232–235
internal politics of 124
and international environmental governance 82, 124–130
and NGOs 120
non-market strategies of 58–60, 125–129
organization of 141
power of, relative to states and NGOs 135–137, 139
public vs. private 122
research on 142
responding to normative principles 224
stonewalling by, to avoid change in behavior 127
structural power of, to make investments 136–137
symbolic strategies of 145, 225
targeting of specific ones, by activists and NGOs 59, 67, 189
See also corporations
compare-and-combine governance mechanisms 235–236
compliance
based on enforcement threats 86
business motivations for 52–53, 167–168
good record of, and profits 53
Connecticut 52
Conservation Fund 99
consumers
“green,” 57, 65, 77, 232
information available to 224, 231–232
coral reefs, destruction of 209
corporate social responsibility (CSR) 25, 77, 127, 128, 183
corporations
corporate governance, shareholder vs. stakeholder interests in 126
in domestic politics 128
global agenda of 82
governance role of 24–26, 82
and international environmental governance 124–130
structural power of, from ability to make investments 136–137
See also companies, multinational corporations
corruption 5
Costa Rica 108, 201
countries
corporatist structure of many in Europe and Japan 61
unequal power relations between 87–88
See also nation states
credence goods 105
crime, and punishment 47
cyanide use in capturing fish 209–210, 213
Czech Republic 197
decision-making, supranational, national, and local levels of 83–84
Demeter Bund 205
democracy 32, 87
in environmental governance 82
Denmark 204
Department of Energy, US (USDOE) 48, 67, 158, 160, 223, 225
deregulation 22, 26
developing countries
democratic reform in 87
and developed countries 87–88
elites in 88–89
environmental governance in 67–68
instrument choice in 52
officials’ relationship with citizens in 89
suppliers in, held to environmental standards 65
voluntary programs in 52, 228–229
direct action, NGO-initiated 189
distributive effects of governance 34
Dupont 29, 56
Earth Island Institute 102
eco-labels 51, 108, 115, 193, 206, 222, 223, 231–232
competing, confusion from 232
Ecological Trading Company 193
economics
assumptions of maximizing behavior, market equilibrium, and stable preferences 45
testing of theories 46–47, 64
Eco-OK 207
Ecosystem and Fishery Management standard (EFM) 211
ecosystems
degradation of 93–95
human-dominated, and demand for governance 19, 39
services of, to humans 17, 93
effectiveness.
See environmental performance
efficiency gains 181
electric utilities 51, 103, 155
Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act of 1986 51
emissions
baseline of 173
permits 50, 52
Energy Policy Act of 1992 159
Energy Star label 223
England, mid-seventeenth century 12
Enron 126
entry requirements
barriers 15
lack of, and failure of self-regulation 107
strict 108
Environmental Defense Fund 29, 55, 56, 99
environmental economics 47–68
mainstream 49
research in 65–68
environmental governance
coercive power lacking in 47–49
comparative efficiency of alternative forms of 224–227, 235–236
cooperation of state, market, and community actors 95
defined 71–73
demand for and supply of 43
democracy in 82
in developing countries 67–68
government role in 227–228
hybrid forms of 69–70
micro and macro levels of 65
political aspects of 62–63, 69–97
pressures for change in 74–77
reasons for participating in 232
research in 221–238
self interest as motive for participating in 80
successful mechanisms of 228–229
transnational actors and 119–143
See also international environmental governance
environmental justice 90
environmental labels.
See eco-labels
Environmental Management and Audit System (EMAS) 171
environmental management systems (EMS) 65, 162, 188
adoption of 179, 180, 181, 234
non-certified, firm-structured 163
environmental networks, transnational 74
environmental NGOs 7, 29–30, 235
co-optation of 29
political behavior of 55–56
environmental performance
assessment of 225–227
information about 181, 225–227, 230–231
levels of 225
measures of 145–146, 166
and shareholder value 233
environmental problems
global nature of 99–100, 187
multi-scalar 90
social and economic causes of, need to address 83
environmental protection, cost of, displacement of populations as 88
Environmental Protection Agency (US) (EPA) 48, 56, 60–61, 103, 144, 155, 158, 172, 223, 228, 230
environmental strategies of companies, cost justifications for 233
environmental values
diffusion of 141
internalization of, by stakeholders 77
See also normative principles
Environment Canada 56
epistemic communities 27, 74, 132
Equal Exchange 203
Equator Principles 128
Ethiopia 199
Europe
corporate governance in 126, 128
negotiated agreements in 61
neocorporatism in 88
ornamental fish trade in 210
sustainable forestry in 195
European Fair Trade Association 204
European Roasterie 207
European Union 50, 205
Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group, EUREP GAP initiative 207
Excel voluntary program 223
experience goods 104
experimental economics 47, 64
externalities 17, 43, 79
Exxon Valdez accident 103
fairness, issues of, and demand for governance 17–18
Fair Trade coffee 214
Fairtrade Foundation (UK) 204
Fairtrade Labelling Organization (FLO) 204, 208
fair trade movements 202–204, 207–208
Fair Trade Organisatie (Dutch) 203
Federal Energy Regulatory Commission 166
Federal Express 56
Federation of Fish Collectors in the Philippines (PMP) 210
Fiji 212
financial institutions, international 132
Finca Irlanda 205
Finland 195
firms.
See companies
firm-structured initiatives 163, 172, 180
fish trade, tropical ornamental 208–213
certification in 210–213
forest deterioriation 100, 102, 192–198
Forest Ministers Conference (Helsinki, 1993) 196
Forest Ministers Conference (Lisbon, 1998) 196
forestry 51, 192–198
Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) 29, 51, 65, 138, 193–197
competitor programs 195–197
organizational structure 194
forum shopping 128
fossil fuels 17
Foucault, Michel 84–86
France 200, 204, 205
FreedomCar project 91
free-rider behavior 16, 59, 62, 77, 100, 111, 176, 177, 223
Friedman, Milton 126
Friends of the Earth–UK 193
Fundación Interamericana de Investigación Tropical (FIIT) 206
game theory approach 46, 55, 64
Germany 200
global climate change (GCC) 89–95
adaptation to 92–93
mitigation of 91–92
Global Climate Coalition 127
globalization 73–76
and interdependencies 35
and lack of territoriality 122
postcolonial 87–88
and supply chains 126
Good Wood scheme 193
governance
actor-centered definition of 222–223
“from below,” 82
by civil society 26–28
classic study of 12–13
contemporary views 6, 13–14
defined 119, 221–223
demand for 3, 14–20
as determinant of collective outcomes 13
development of systems of 14
effectiveness of systems of 14, 30–32
evaluation of systems of 30–32
failures of 35–37
global scale of, needed to address sustainable development 4
“good,” normative standards of 32
governance without government 7, 21
and government, distinguished 3, 6, 71, 77, 222
hybrid systems of 3, 6, 8
incentives mechanisms of 223–224
by intergovernmental agreement 23–24
macro-level consequences of 33–35
by non-state actors 7, 24–26, 64, 119–120, 121–124, 141
private 7, 24–26
pure science and applied science approaches 38
research on 6, 21–30, 37–39, 71
as a social function 37
in traditional societies 26–27
See also environmental governance
government
authority of 122
bureaucratically inert, corrupt, or oppressive types of 22
and certification 214
decreasing confidence in 3, 5, 119
environmental challenges to 90
failed 22
failure to address environmental problems 4, 74–75, 99–100, 141, 183, 223
governance by 20–23
and governance, distinguished 3, 6, 71, 77, 222
and individuals 84–86
intervention by 25
outsourcing of functions of 130
“governmentality” (Foucault) 84–86
“green and competitive” claim 231
“green clubs,” benefits to a company of membership in 181
“green” companies 98–99, 230
“green” consumers 77, 232
business responding to 57
developing countries responding to 65
greenhouse gas emissions
and Kyoto Protocol 64
reduction of 91–92
voluntary reductions of 56, 59, 155
Greenpeace 56
“greenwash,” 66
Guatemala 201, 203, 207
Haas, Peter 74
Handling, Husbandry and Transport standard (HHT) 211
Hardin, Garrett 15, 47, 100
Hayek, Friedrich 21
historical process tracing 184–185
Hobbes, Thomas 12, 47
Home Depot 59, 194
horizontal governance networks 82–83
Howard, Sir Albert 204
human actions, impact of, on environment 4
human behavior, models of 113–114
hybrid mechanisms of environmental governance 3, 6, 8, 28–30, 69–70, 73–77, 222–223
dealing with environmental problems 89–95
and distributional inequalities 83
lack of legitimacy of 141
limitations of 80–86
role of NGOs in 139
unequal power relations among the actors 86–89
hypothesis testing 47
idea diffusion 141
India 51
Indiana University: Workshop in Political Theory and Policy Analysis 63
individuals
behavior of, in the absence of governance 15–16
government’s effect on 84–86
individual transferable quotas (ITQs) 15
Indonesia 51, 67–68, 198, 199, 201, 209, 212
industries
certification programs 51–52
common problems of, driving self-regulation 102–104
numbers of firms in, and free-rider problem 59
industry association programs 160–161, 170–171, 177–178, 181
industry associations 24, 57, 62
information
asymmetric 104–105, 108
available to consumers 231–232
available to investors 229–231
from companies 232–235
governance mechanisms based on 229–235
information disclosure
to consumers, investors, and NGOs 224
on environmental performance 181
mandatory programs of 51, 160
voluntary 160
innovation, speed of 74
inspections 53
Institute of Nuclear Power Operation 103, 111
institutional theory 105–107, 109
institutions (rules) 98
nonbinding (no “teeth”) 99
power of, to induce compliance 86
research on 72–73
instrument choice 49–52
insurance companies 108
Integrated Data for Enforcement Analysis System (IDEAS) database 166
interdependencies, and demand for governance 18
interest groups, rent seeking behavior of, regarding use of state power 54
intergovernmental agreements 23–24
intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) 121, 215
distinct interests of 123
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 27, 28
internal self-regulation by firms.
See firm-structured initiatives
International Coffee Agreement 199, 200–202
International Coffee Organization 201–202
international conventions, binding 100
international development agencies 214
international environmental governance
coercive power lacking 47
corporations and 124–130
informal forms of 65
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and 130–135, 137–143
International Fair Trade Association 204
International Federation for Alternative Trade 204
International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) 205
International Finance Corporation (IFC) 28
International Marinelife Alliance 209, 213
International Network on Environmental Compliance and Enforcement (INECE) 28
international nongovernmental organizations (INGOs) 130, 131, 132
relationships with business 129–130
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 28, 101, 144, 162, 188
International Paper 99
international relations
actors in 121–124
role of the private sector 125
top-down approach in analysis of (state as central) 140–141
International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) 192, 215
International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) 28
investment, international 125–126, 136
investors, information available to, as basis for responsible investing 229–231
invisible hand 21
iron triangles 5
ISO 9000 (Quality Management System Standard) 106, 110, 111, 162–163, 171, 178–179
ISO 14001 (Environmental Management System Standard) 28, 65, 106, 108–109, 110, 111, 137, 162–163, 171, 178–180, 181, 196, 227, 228
Italy 200
Ivory Coast 199
Japan 26, 61, 171
knowledge, representations of (Foucault) 85
Kropotkin, Peter 12
Kwisthout, Hubert 193
Kyoto Protocol (1997) 24, 64, 91, 127
labels
eco- 51, 108, 115, 193, 206, 222, 223, 231–232
fair trade 203–204
NGO and industry 52
Latin America 198, 206
Latvia 197
lean production practices (“lean is green”) 178
legitimacy.
See authority
less developed countries (LDCs).
See developing countries
Lloyd, William Forster 100
local people
resource management by 63
See also traditional societies
Luxembourg 204
Malaysia 197
Management Institute for the Environment and Business 98
management studies 115
Marine Aquarium Council (MAC) 210–213, 214
Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) 29, 65, 101, 214
market-based environmental governance strategies 76–77
market equilibrium, applied to human behavior 46
markets
in hybrid environmental governance 77–80
social embedding of, by NSMD systems 189
Marx, Karl 13
mass protests 135
Max Havelaar Foundation 203–204
maximizing behavior 45, 54
maximum available control technology (MACT) 59, 158
McDonald’s 29, 56, 99, 138
media, influence of, on public sentiment 67
metal finishing industry 155, 159
Metal Products and Machinery Act 159
Mexico 163, 180, 199, 203, 205, 228
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) 93–94
Millennium Development Goals 4, 29
monitoring/verification 48, 189
Montreal Protocol 64, 99, 158
moral hazard 110
Motion Picture Association of America 100
movie ratings system 100
multilateral environmental agreements (MEAs) 5, 23–24
multinational corporations
environmental management systems of 65
and private governance 24
structural power of, from ability to make investments 136–137
See also companies
multi-partner governance 79
“name and shame” tactics 132
Nash, John 46
National Audubon Society 55, 206
National Pollutant Discharge Inventory (Canada) 63
National Pollutant Release Inventory (NPRI) (Canada) 156, 160
National Ski Areas Association 161
nation states
hollowing out and shrinking of 83–84
in hybrid environmental governance 77–80
international agreements among, on environmental matters 64
power of, relative to NGOs 140–141
unable to solve many environmental problems 23, 93
See also countries
natural resources
decentralized governance of 75–76
exploitation of 87–88
inequal allocation of 81
nature, commodification of 81
Nature Conservancy 209
negotiated voluntary agreements 28, 57, 61–62, 66, 222, 227, 228
neoclassical economics 43, 56, 82
neoliberal globalization, harm of, to the environment 189
Nestlé 200
Netherlands 203
New Consumer 204
new institutionalists (New Institutional Economics) 13, 33, 44, 63–66, 72
new public management 131
Niebuhr, Reinhold 37
Nigeria 132, 136
nitrogen oxide 50
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) 45, 51, 92, 120, 122, 130–135, 135–137, 187
agenda-setting role of 133–134
boycotts by 59, 102, 189
certification programs of 51, 187
and companies, differences 135–137
interactions with companies 120
internal organization of 135, 141
and international environmental governance 130–135, 137–143
maximizing behavior of 45
political spectrum of 131
private politics of, dealing with industries 59, 67
public vs. private 122
reputation and influence of 137–139
research by, impact on public policy 92, 137–138
research on 142
and states, partners with 138–139, 140–141
strategies and survival tactics of 134
three types of (operational, advocacy, and scientific) 130–132
transnational 130
See also international nongovernmental organizations
non-state actors
governance by 119–120, 121–124
and international environmental governance 139–143
power of, with globalization 73–74
public vs. private 122–123
research on 119–120
non-state market-driven (NSMD) governance systems 183–215
authority of 187–189
certification programs 183, 190–192, 202–208, 214–215
effectiveness of 185
future of 197–198
research on 184–185
rise of, and reasons for 187–189
normative principles
adoption and spreading of 141
companies responding to 224
individuals responding to 15
life-cycle of adoption of 134
See also environmental values
North, Douglass 13
North-South
comparisons 196
relations 87–88, 194
nuclear power industry 103, 111
Nuclear Regulatory Commission 111
open source software 115
operational NGOs 130–131
opportunism 107
Oregon 205
organic agriculture 204–206
government legislation re 205
organic products, consumers’ preference for 232
organizational theory 141
ornamental fish trade.
See fish trade, tropical ornamental
Ostrom, Elinor 44, 63–64, 101
outcome metrics 110
output restrictions 54–55
outsourcing, of governmental functions 130
Oxfam 203
ozone layer, protection of 23, 64, 158
Pan European Forest Certification (PEFC) 195–197
paper and pulp industry 103
partnership programs (EPA) 56
Partnerships for Climate Action 29
“pay to be green” claim 98
penalties, too small 48
performance.
See environmental performance
Pet Industry Cyanide Fact Mission 209
petroleum industry 103
Philip Morris 200
Philippines 209, 210, 212
Pigouvian taxes 43–44
Poland 195
political economy, and environmental policy 54–56
political opportunity structures 133
political science
and environmental concerns 69–97
limited interest in environmental issues, up to now 70
study of governance 37
political systems, virtuous and degenerate phases of (Aristotle) 36
politicians, maximizing behavior of, e.g., for re-election 45, 54
politics, game-theoretic models of 55
pollution
monitoring of 48
non-point sources of 53
as symptomatic of production inefficiencies 57
pollution taxes, vs. output restrictions 54–55
Porter hypothesis 25
postcolonialism 87–88
poststructuralism, critique of “governmentality,” 84–86
Poverty Reduction Strategies 94
power, and subject creation (Foucault) 85–86
“prices vs. quantities” policy choice 49–50
principal-agent framework of analysis 124, 135
private governance 7, 24–26
private–social partnerships 79
privatization 22, 26
process metrics 110
product quality
asymmetric information affecting 104–105
signaling of 104–105, 111
profit, as corporate goal 125, 126, 142
Program for the Endorsement of Forest Certification (PEFC) 195
project finance banks 128
Project XL (eXcellence and Leadership) 228
PROPER program (Indonesia) 68
protected areas 192
public disclosure.
See information disclosure
publicity
adverse, against polluters 156
favorable, to companies perceived as environmentally sound 156
public–private partnerships 79
public recognition, as motivator for PVPs 168
public voluntary agreements (PVAs).
See negotiated voluntary agreements
public voluntary programs (PVPs) 57, 60–61, 147–160, 168–170, 181, 228
punishment 47
quality.
See product quality
quality assurance 162
Quality Assurance International 206
Rainforest Action Network 59
Rainforest Alliance 193, 206, 214
Reagonomics 26
realists 13
Rechargeable Battery Recycling Corporation 103
redistributive policy making 84
ReefCheck 211
regimes, international
alternatives to 74
creation of, to address environmental problems 23–24
deficiencies of 74
governance of 64
regulation
enforcement of 47–49, 52–53
influencing, by voluntary self-regulation 59–60
instrument choice in 49–52
international, difficulty of 129
preemption or forestalling of 58, 103–104, 146, 167, 168
relief from 159, 224
stability of 7, 25
threat of 57, 61–62, 66, 86, 111, 127, 158, 227
uncertainty of 228
VEIs as substitute for 144–145
regulators
dissatisfaction with 76
flexibility from, in return for willingness to be environmentally responsible 171, 223–224
maximizing behavior of, balancing consumers and producers 45
“race to the bottom” among 136
voluntary compliance with 60
reporting.
See information disclosure
research and development (R&D), investment in 50–51
resources.
See natural resources
Responsible Care program 59, 100, 104, 107, 110, 111–112, 160–161, 170, 178, 181, 225
Rhine River 23
Rio Summit (UNCED) (1992) 192, 194
Russia 64
sample selection bias, in assessment of environmental performance 226
sanctions
common, against all firms in an industry 102–104
lack of, in VEIs 181–182
scientific NGOs 131–132
self-assessment 161
self-regulation 57–60, 66, 98, 128–129
effectiveness of 109–112
independent monitoring of 110
preemptive (forestalling government regulation) 58
prevalence of, in various industries 100–101
reasons for emergence of 101–105
research on 101, 112
weak enforcement of, and failure of programs 107–109, 110–112
shade-grown coffee 198, 206, 208
Shell 29, 132, 136
shipping industry 108, 111
Sierra Club 55
Ski Area Citizens Coalition 177
skiing industry 108, 161
SmartWood Program 193
Smith, Adam 12
Smith, Vernon 47
Smithsonian Migratory Bird Center (SMBC) 206
social capital 64
in developing countries 67
social changes, and demand for governance 19
social contract 12
socially responsible investing (SRI) 67, 229–231
social movements
objectives of 46
transnational 133
social traps 17
South Africa 205
Spain 200
special interest groups (SIGs) 55
species decline and extinction 28, 192, 206
sprawl 161
stable preferences assumption 46
stakeholders
involvement of 32, 101
taking into account the preferences of 167
state.
See government, nation states
state and local governments (US), pacts between 123
statistical method, in economics 46, 185
Steiner, Rudolph 204
strategic choice perspective, and self-regulation 107–109
Strategic Goals Program 155, 158, 159, 170, 176
subject creation (Foucault) 85–86
subjectivities, changes in 86
sulfur dioxide emissions 50
suppliers in developing countries, held to environmental standards 65
supply chains
globalization and 126
NSMD systems acting on 189
sustainable agriculture 206
Sustainable Coffee Conference, First 206
sustainable development
global action needed for 4
governance for 3, 4, 36, 139
research on 221–238
triple bottom line in 4, 19–20
See also agriculture, forestry
Sustainable Forestry Board 195
Sustainable Forestry Initiative (SFI) 51, 195
Sustainable Slopes program 108, 110, 161, 170, 177
sweatshops 184, 214
Sweden 195, 205
Switzerland 204
symbolic strategies, companies adopting, to avoid real change 145, 225
target dates, meeting, as sign of success 172
taxes
effectiveness of 61
and R&D investment 50
vs. standards, as instrument choice 49–50
technical assistance, to companies 156
Ten Thousand Villages 202
Theory of the Firm 99
third parties, harm to.
See externalities
third party initiatives 162–163, 171, 178–180
third party oversight/audits 161, 162, 179, 181, 206
33/50 Program 60, 61, 155, 158, 160, 168–169, 172, 174–175
Three Mile Island accident 103
timber harvesting 51
toxic chemicals, emissions of 51, 56, 155, 160
Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) 51, 66, 156, 160, 166, 230
tradable emissions permits 50, 52
trade (international), certification programs for products in 187
trademark, registered, of industry association programs 160
traditional societies, governance in 26–27
TRAFFIC (wildlife trade monitoring network) 28
tragedy of the commons 15–16, 47, 63, 100, 223
Traidcraft 203
transaction costs 44, 48
transferable credits 159
transnational activist networks (TANs) 133
transnational actors, and environmental governance 119–143
transnational social movements 133
1,1,1-trichloroethane (TCA) 158
triple bottom line, and demand for governance 4, 19–20
Tullock, Gordon 54
tuna fishing 102, 104
Twin Trading 203
two-level game concept 123
Type II partnerships 29
Uganda 199
ultimatum game 64
UN Environment Programme 121
Union Carbide 160
United Kingdom.
See Britain
United Nations 132
United Nations Framework Climate Change Convention (UNFCCC) 93, 157
United States
corporate governance in 126
federal environmental legislation 48
inequality in 35
organic movement in 205
privatization in 26
PVPs in 60–61
regulation in 228
rejection of Kyoto Protocol 24, 64
sustainable forestry practices 195
trade in ornamental fish 210, 212
University of Chicago 54–55
US Climate Action Program (USCAP) 29
US Pet Industry 210
Utz Kapeh 207
veto players 82
Vietnam 199
Virginia school of public choice 54–55
voluntary agreements (VAs).
See negotiated voluntary agreements
voluntary environmental initiatives (VEIs) 144–182
effectiveness of 145–146, 163–167, 172–182, 227
lack of sanctioning mechanisms 181–182
participation in 146–147, 163–166, 167–168
symbolic value of participation 145
Voluntary Greenhouse Gas Registry 67
voluntary markets (environmental) 8
voluntary programs for environmental protection (generally) 8, 52, 56–63, 66–67, 77, 104, 127, 155, 225, 226, 227, 228–229
categories of 57
in developing countries 52
reasons for participating in 225, 226, 227
research on 56, 66–67
threat of regulation and 57, 127
vulnerability to global climate change 92–93
Wal-Mart 232
Walt Smith International 212
waste reduction 181
wastewater discharges 159
WasteWise 60
Weitzman, M. 49
West, rise of the 33
wildlife preservation 161
win/win opportunities 98, 155
World Bank 94, 132, 215
World Commission on Dams 140
World Development Movement 204
World Resources Institute 29
world shops 202
World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) (2002) 28
Worldwide Fund for Nature (WWF) 28, 55, 138, 193, 209, 210, 211, 214
Young, Oran 44, 64–65
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